An Interactive Documentary

Road to Uhuru: The Decolonized Continent

A quantitative and spatial reconstruction of how African nations broke the chains of colonialism and severed imperial frameworks, transitioning from subjugation to sovereign statehood. It traces how all 54 African states came into being, from 1847 to 2011.

Continental cartography

An animated map of Africa showing each nation's independence year by year.

Chronological waves

How independence came in waves, peaking in 1960, the Year of Africa.

Two roads out of empire

Why settler colonies such as Algeria, Kenya and Zimbabwe took a longer, more violent path to independence than non-settler colonies.

The Continental Schism

The diplomatic blocs of newly independent Africa, from the Casablanca and Monrovia groups to the Organisation of African Unity.

Structural analysis

What ended empire?

The historiographical debate over the causes of decolonisation.

“Our independence is meaningless unless it is linked up with the total liberation of Africa.”
— Kwame Nkrumah, Independence speech, Accra, 6 March 1957
“We are going to show the world what the black man can do when he works in freedom.”
— Patrice Lumumba, Independence Day speech, Léopoldville, 30 June 1960
“Let there be justice for all. Let there be peace for all. Let there be work, bread, water and salt for all.”
— Nelson Mandela, Presidential inauguration address, Pretoria, 10 May 1994

Timeline of independence

  1. Liberia (July 26, 1847) — from Commonwealth of Liberia, by sovereign anomaly; head of government at independence Joseph Jenkins Roberts. Declared independence on 26 July 1847, ending the American Colonization Society's authority over the Commonwealth of Liberia; recognised by Britain in 1848 and by the United States only in 1862.
  2. Ethiopia (May 5, 1941) — from Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia), by sovereign anomaly; head of government at independence Emperor Haile Selassie. Repelled Italian invasion at 1896 Battle of Adwa. Sovereignty restored in 1941 following defeat of brief Italian fascist occupation.
  3. Libya (December 24, 1951) — from British- and French-administered Libya (former Italian colony), by un resolution; head of government at independence King Idris I. Attained sovereignty under UN supervision following post-WWII British and French temporary military administrations.
  4. Sudan (January 1, 1956) — from Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, by negotiated; head of government at independence Ismail al-Azhari. The Anglo-Egyptian Condominium ended after Sudan's parliament unanimously declared independence on 19 December 1955, choosing full sovereignty over union with Egypt.
  5. Tunisia (March 20, 1956) — from French Protectorate of Tunisia, by negotiated; head of government at independence Habib Bourguiba. Neo-Destour and trade-union pressure and fellagha guerrilla resistance won internal autonomy in 1955 and full independence by the protocol of 20 March 1956, as France concentrated on the war in Algeria.
  6. Morocco (March 2, 1956) — from French and Spanish Protectorates in Morocco, by negotiated; head of government at independence Sultan Mohammed V. France ended protectorate status after widespread nationalist agitation, intensified by its exile of Sultan Mohammed V in 1953.
  7. Egypt (June 18, 1956) — from Kingdom of Egypt (British Suez Canal Zone base), by negotiated; head of government at independence Gamal Abdel Nasser. Formally independent under Britain's Unilateral Declaration of 28 February 1922, Egypt won full sovereignty only after the 1952 Free Officers' revolution, the 1954 evacuation agreement and the departure of the last British troops in June 1956.
  8. Ghana (March 6, 1957) — from Gold Coast & British Togoland, by negotiated; head of government at independence Kwame Nkrumah. Widely regarded as the first sub-Saharan African colony to win independence from European rule (Sudan, independent in 1956, is sometimes counted first), after the CPP's Positive Action campaign and successive election victories.
  9. Guinea (October 2, 1958) — from French Guinea, by negotiated; head of government at independence Ahmed Sékou Touré. Only French territory to vote 'No' in de Gaulle's constitutional referendum of 28 September 1958, rejecting the French Community in favour of immediate independence, after which France abruptly withdrew.
  10. Cameroon (January 1, 1960) — from French Cameroun (UN Trusteeship), by negotiated; head of government at independence Ahmadou Ahidjo. Achieved statehood after French military suppression of UPC insurgency and negotiated transfer to moderate leadership.
  11. Togo (April 27, 1960) — from French Togoland, by negotiated; head of government at independence Sylvanus Olympio. Ended UN trusteeship after the Comité de l'Unité Togolaise won the UN-supervised elections of 1958, defeating the French-backed government; independence followed on 27 April 1960.
  12. Mali (June 20, 1960) — from Sudanese Republic, by negotiated; head of government at independence Modibo Keïta. Became independent on 20 June 1960 as part of the Mali Federation with Senegal; after Senegal's secession, the former French Sudan proclaimed the Republic of Mali on 22 September 1960, its national independence day.
  13. Madagascar (June 26, 1960) — from Malagasy Republic, by negotiated; head of government at independence Philibert Tsiranana. Negotiated exit following pacification of brutal 1947 nationalist uprising.
  14. DR Congo (June 30, 1960) — from Belgian Congo, by negotiated; head of government at independence Patrice Lumumba. Belgium conceded independence within six months after the 1959 Léopoldville riots; with few trained Congolese administrators or officers, the new state fell almost immediately into the Congo Crisis.
  15. Somalia (July 1, 1960) — from Italian Trust & British Somaliland, by negotiated; head of government at independence Aden Abdullah Osman Daar. Union of British Somaliland (independent 26 June 1960) and the UN Trust Territory of Somaliland under Italian administration, forming the Somali Republic on 1 July 1960.
  16. Benin (Dahomey) (August 1, 1960) — from French Dahomey, by negotiated; head of government at independence Hubert Maga. Moved through Loi Cadre self-government and autonomy within the French Community to negotiated independence alongside its Conseil de l'Entente partners.
  17. Niger (August 3, 1960) — from Colony of Niger, by negotiated; head of government at independence Hamani Diori. Negotiated independence within the French Community framework after the colonial administration helped remove the pro-independence Sawaba government in 1958.
  18. Burkina Faso (August 5, 1960) — from French Upper Volta, by negotiated; head of government at independence Maurice Yaméogo. Became an autonomous republic within the French Community in December 1958 and gained independence through negotiated transfer alongside its Conseil de l'Entente partners.
  19. Ivory Coast (August 7, 1960) — from French Ivory Coast, by negotiated; head of government at independence Félix Houphouët-Boigny. Negotiated by elite leader Houphouët-Boigny, maintaining close economic and defense ties with France.
  20. Chad (August 11, 1960) — from French Chad, by negotiated; head of government at independence François Tombalbaye. Territorial coalition transfer from French Equatorial Africa.
  21. Central African Republic (August 13, 1960) — from Ubangi-Shari, by negotiated; head of government at independence David Dacko. Autonomous transition from French Community.
  22. Republic of the Congo (August 15, 1960) — from Middle Congo (Congo-Brazzaville), by negotiated; head of government at independence Fulbert Youlou. Constitutional transfer from French Equatorial Africa.
  23. Gabon (August 17, 1960) — from French Gabon, by negotiated; head of government at independence Léon M'ba. Bilateral cooperation accords negotiated by conservative political elites.
  24. Senegal (August 20, 1960) — from Republic of Senegal, by negotiated; head of government at independence Léopold Sédar Senghor. Withdrew from the short-lived Mali Federation in August 1960 to establish a sovereign republic governed by the Union Progressiste Sénégalaise.
  25. Nigeria (October 1, 1960) — from Federation of Nigeria, by negotiated; head of government at independence Abubakar Tafawa Balewa. Negotiated federal independence following constitutional conferences in London and Lagos; a federation of three regions, its politics divided between the Northern People's Congress, the NCNC and the Action Group.
  26. Mauritania (November 28, 1960) — from French Mauritania, by negotiated; head of government at independence Moktar Ould Daddah. Devolution via French Community accords.
  27. Sierra Leone (April 27, 1961) — from Colony and Protectorate of Sierra Leone, by negotiated; head of government at independence Milton Margai. Constitutional transition within British Commonwealth.
  28. Tanzania (December 9, 1961) — from Tanganyika, by negotiated; head of government at independence Julius Nyerere. TANU's mass mobilisation carried Tanganyika to independence in 1961; it united with Zanzibar in April 1964.
  29. Rwanda (July 1, 1962) — from Ruanda (Ruanda-Urundi, Belgian-administered UN Trust Territory), by negotiated; head of government at independence Grégoire Kayibanda. The 1959 Hutu revolution, backed by the Belgian administration, overturned the Tutsi monarchy before the UN ended the Ruanda-Urundi trusteeship on 1 July 1962; Parmehutu took power in a republic.
  30. Burundi (July 1, 1962) — from Urundi (Ruanda-Urundi, Belgian-administered UN Trust Territory), by negotiated; head of government at independence Mwami Mwambutsa IV. Prince Louis Rwagasore's UPRONA swept the UN-supervised election of September 1961 and he was assassinated within a month; the kingdom became independent under Mwambutsa IV when the trusteeship ended on 1 July 1962.
  31. Algeria (July 5, 1962) — from French Algeria, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Ahmed Ben Bella. Eight-year war of national liberation (1954–62) in a colony of about one million European settlers, ending with the 1962 Évian Accords, a referendum, and the mass departure of settlers.
  32. Uganda (October 9, 1962) — from Uganda Protectorate, by negotiated; head of government at independence Milton Obote. Independence negotiated in 1962 through a UPC–Kabaka Yekka coalition that sought to reconcile the Buganda kingdom with the central state.
  33. Kenya (December 12, 1963) — from Kenya Colony, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Jomo Kenyatta. The Mau Mau rebellion was militarily defeated, but its costs and the scandal of the detention camps pushed Britain to abandon settler rule and transfer power to KANU.
  34. Malawi (July 6, 1964) — from Nyasaland, by negotiated; head of government at independence Hastings Kamuzu Banda. Mass opposition to the Central African Federation, led by the Nyasaland African Congress and its successor the Malawi Congress Party, brought the Federation's dissolution and independence in 1964.
  35. Zambia (October 24, 1964) — from Northern Rhodesia, by negotiated; head of government at independence Kenneth Kaunda. UNIP's mass campaigns helped break the Central African Federation, and Zambia became independent as a republic in 1964.
  36. The Gambia (February 18, 1965) — from Gambia Colony and Protectorate, by negotiated; head of government at independence Dawda Jawara. Constitutional progress led by the People's Progressive Party brought independence to the small river territory in 1965.
  37. Botswana (September 30, 1966) — from Bechuanaland Protectorate, by negotiated; head of government at independence Seretse Khama. Peaceful, negotiated transition of a British High Commission territory to an independent republic.
  38. Lesotho (October 4, 1966) — from Basutoland, by negotiated; head of government at independence Leabua Jonathan. Negotiated constitutional independence for a British High Commission territory enclaved within South Africa.
  39. Mauritius (March 12, 1968) — from Colony of Mauritius, by negotiated; head of government at independence Seewoosagur Ramgoolam. After the 1965 London conference tied independence to an election, the Labour-led Independence Party won in August 1967 and the Mauritius Independence Act took effect on 12 March 1968; Britain had detached the Chagos Islands on the way.
  40. Eswatini (September 6, 1968) — from Swaziland, by negotiated; head of government at independence King Sobhuza II. Constitutional monarchy restored sovereignty.
  41. Equatorial Guinea (October 12, 1968) — from Spanish Guinea, by negotiated; head of government at independence Francisco Macías Nguema. Spain relinquished island and mainland territories under UN pressure.
  42. Guinea-Bissau (September 10, 1974) — from Portuguese Guinea, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Luís Cabral. PAIGC guerrilla liberation struggle defeated Portuguese military in rural zones, helping trigger 1974 Lisbon Carnation Revolution.
  43. Mozambique (June 25, 1975) — from Portuguese East Africa, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Samora Machel. FRELIMO armed struggle against Estado Novo led to rapid Portuguese exit following 1974 Lisbon coup.
  44. Cape Verde (July 5, 1975) — from Portuguese Cape Verde, by negotiated; head of government at independence Aristides Pereira. PAIGC political wing negotiated independence following Portuguese collapse.
  45. Comoros (July 6, 1975) — from Territory of the Comoros (French overseas territory), by negotiated; head of government at independence Ahmed Abdallah. Three islands voted 95 percent for independence in December 1974 while Mayotte voted to stay French; rather than accept an island-by-island count, the Comorian assembly declared the whole archipelago independent on 6 July 1975.
  46. São Tomé and Príncipe (July 12, 1975) — from Portuguese Overseas Province of São Tomé and Príncipe, by negotiated; head of government at independence Manuel Pinto da Costa. The cocoa islands had no armed struggle of their own; after the Carnation Revolution, Portugal agreed with the MLSTP in Algiers in November 1974 and handed over sovereignty on 12 July 1975.
  47. Angola (November 11, 1975) — from Portuguese West Africa, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Agostinho Neto. 14-year war by MPLA, FNLA, and UNITA led to sudden Portuguese departure, plunging country into Cold War proxy conflict.
  48. Seychelles (June 29, 1976) — from Seychelles (British Crown Colony), by negotiated; head of government at independence James Mancham. After both parties campaigned for independence in the 1974 election, two London conferences and a coalition government produced a republican constitution; Seychelles became independent on 29 June 1976 under a coalition of the two parties.
  49. Djibouti (June 27, 1977) — from French Territory of the Afars and the Issas (French Somaliland), by negotiated; head of government at independence Hassan Gouled Aptidon. Two rigged referendums kept the Red Sea garrison French in 1958 and 1967; under UN pressure and a united Afar-Issa front, a third vote on 8 May 1977 chose independence almost unanimously and the republic was proclaimed on 27 June.
  50. Zimbabwe (April 18, 1980) — from Southern Rhodesia, by armed insurgency; head of government at independence Robert Mugabe. A guerrilla war of more than a decade, the Second Chimurenga, forced the Rhodesian settler regime to the 1979 Lancaster House Agreement.
  51. Namibia (March 21, 1990) — from South West Africa, by un plebiscite; head of government at independence Sam Nujoma. A German protectorate from 1884 and South African-ruled from 1915, first under a League of Nations mandate; SWAPO's armed struggle and international pressure led to the UN-supervised elections of Resolution 435, ending South Africa's illegal occupation.
  52. Eritrea (May 24, 1993) — from Eritrea (Ethiopian province, formerly Italian colony and UN-federated territory), by secession referendum; head of government at independence Isaias Afwerki. Federated with Ethiopia by the UN in 1952 and annexed in 1962, Eritrea fought a thirty-year war until the EPLF took Asmara in May 1991; a UN-observed referendum in April 1993 voted 99.8 percent for independence, declared on 24 May 1993.
  53. South Africa (April 27, 1994) — from Union / Republic of South Africa, by negotiated; head of government at independence Nelson Mandela. Mass internal mobilisation, armed struggle and sanctions forced negotiations that ended apartheid and produced the first universal-suffrage elections.
  54. South Sudan (July 9, 2011) — from Southern Sudan (autonomous region of the Republic of Sudan), by secession referendum; head of government at independence Salva Kiir Mayardit. Two civil wars against Khartoum, from 1955 and from 1983, ended in the 2005 Comprehensive Peace Agreement; in January 2011 southerners voted 98.83 percent to secede, and Africa's newest state was proclaimed on 9 July 2011.

Sources and image credits

Developed by Tapiwa Chiwewe.